With reference to the cultural history of India, consider the following pairs :

The correct option is 1 and 3 only.

Explanation

Ancient Indian religious traditions used specific terms to denote ascetics, renunciants, and lay followers within different philosophical and religious systems.

Statement 1 – Correct: Parivrajaka refers to a wandering ascetic or renunciant who has renounced worldly life and travels in pursuit of spiritual knowledge.

Statement 2 – Incorrect: Shramana denotes ascetics who renounced ritualistic Vedic traditions and pursued paths of austerity and meditation. They were not priests with high ritual status; rather, they often stood outside the orthodox Brahmanical system.

Statement 3 – Correct: Upasaka refers to a lay follower of Buddhism who adheres to the teachings of the Buddha without renouncing household life.

Key Takeaway: Parivrajaka and Shramana are associated with ascetic traditions, while Upasaka denotes a lay follower; Shramanas were not Vedic priests but part of heterodox ascetic movements.